Chiapas is home to the ancient Mayan ruins of Palenque, Yaxchilán, Bonampak, Chinkultic and Toniná. [115] Tourism has provided a number of a these communities with markets for their handcrafts and works, some of which are very profitable.[97]. This was the oldest Mesoamerican culture discovered to date. [59], From the 1970s on, some 100,000 people set up homes in this rainforest area, with many being recognized as ejidos, or communal land-holding organizations. The Tzotzils are also known for their continued use of the temazcal for hygiene and medicinal purposes. Though much smaller than the huge sites at Tikal or Copán, Palenque contains some of the finest architecture, sculpture and stucco reliefs the Mayans ever produced. ", This page was last edited on 28 December 2022, at 13:58. [119] They are mostly located in the communities of Lacanjá Chansayab, Najá, and Mensabak in the Lacandon Jungle. [98], More migrate out of Chiapas than migrate in, with emigrants leaving for Tabasco, Oaxaca, Veracruz, State of Mexico and the Federal District primarily. "[140], Starting in the 1970s, there has been a shift away from traditional Catholic affiliation to Protestant, Evangelical and other Christian denominations. Una vez consumada la Independencia de México, los habitantes del territorio del actual estado de Chiapas, incluido el partido del Soconusco, enfrentaron un dilema: formar parte de Guatemala, de México o permanecer como una colonia del Imperio Español. It conserves areas of tropical rainforest and many freshwater systems endemic to Central America. Oil production began during the 1980s and Chiapas has become the fourth largest producer of crude oil and natural gas among the Mexican states. [14][need quotation to verify], Hunter gatherers began to occupy the central valley of the state around 7000 BCE, but little is known about them. [16] Most Europeans and their descendants tended to concentrate in cities such as Ciudad Real, Comitán, Chiapa and Tuxtla. One famous example of this is the Battle of Tepetchia, where many jumped to their deaths in the Sumidero Canyon. Liberal politicians sought to solidify their power among the indigenous groups by weakening the Roman Catholic Church. It has a wide range of climates but little arable land. The two largest rivers are the Grijalva and the Usumacinta, with both part of the same system. [21][100] It has been especially appealing to a variety of academics including many anthropologists, archeologists, historians, psychologists and sociologists. [21][22] Women are distinguished by a black skirt with a wool belt and an undyed cotton bloused embroidered with flowers. There are also other ancient sites including Tapachula and Tepcatán, and Pijijiapan. Hay deberás de ingresar la placa o número de cedula del posible dueño o el número de la placa del vehículo. [100], Most Indigenous communities have economies based primarily on traditional agriculture such as the cultivation and processing of corn, beans and coffee as a cash crop and in the last decade, many have begun producing sugarcane and jatropha for refinement into biodiesel and ethanol for automobile fuel. Meat dishes are frequently accompanied by vegetables such as squash, chayote and carrots. [20] The Palenque National Forest is centered on the archaeological site of the same name and was decreed in 1981. Pux-Xaxé is a stew with beef organ meats and mole sauce made with tomato, chili bolita and corn flour. Estruc-co y Guatemala. Chiapas, Mexico. [18], Mayan civilization began in the pre-Classic period as well, but did not come into prominence until the Classic period (300–900 CE). [142] Nowadays, most of the Mayan Muslims have left the Murabitun and established ties with the CCIM, now following the orthodox Sunni school of Islam. One reason for this was the December 1997 massacre of forty-five unarmed Tzotzil peasants, mostly women and children, in the Zapatista-controlled village of Acteal in the Chenhaló municipality just north of San Cristóbal. [43][61] Recently there has been political, social and ethnic conflict between the Tzotzil who are more urbanized and have a significant number of Protestant practitioners and the Tzeltal who are predominantly Catholic and live in smaller farming communities. Black beans are the favored type. This site was a ceremonial center that flourished between 600 and 900 CE. 264.#.0.c: 1982. Liberal governments expropriated lands that were previously held by the Spanish Crown and Catholic Church in order to sell them into private hands. [16][24], Initially, "Chiapas" referred to the first two cities established by the Spanish in what is now the center of the state and the area surrounding them. [112][120] The Mame language is one of the most ancient Mayan languages with 5,450 Mame speakers were tallied in Chiapas in the 2000 census. However, these rates still mean significant population growth in raw numbers. It has a territory of 74,415 km2, the eighth largest state in Mexico. The Usumacinta divides the state from Guatemala and is the longest river in Central America. "[13] After the Spanish arrived (1522), they established two cities called Chiapas de los Indios and Chiapas de los Españoles (1528), with the name of Provincia de Chiapas for the area around the cities. [163] Puerto Chiapas serves to import and export products across the Pacific to Asia, the United States, Canada and South America. [116] Indigenous girls often learn how to sew and embroider before they learn how to speak Spanish. The latter mostly came at the end of the 19th and early 20th century under the Porfirio Díaz regime to start plantations. Architecture in the state begins with the archeological sites of the Mayans and other groups who established color schemes and other details that echo in later structures. Zoque is considered to be of medium-vitality with a rate of bilingualism of over 70% and home use somewhere between 65% and 80%. All pieces here are made by hand using techniques that go back centuries. [86], Yaxchilan flourished in the 8th and 9th centuries. Indian populations are concentrated in a few areas, with the largest concentration of indigenous-language-speaking individuals is living in 5 of Chiapas's 9 economic regions: Los Altos, Selva, Norte, Fronteriza, and Sierra. Fuente: ComuniCreando These plains are found only in the extreme north of the state. [76] It is located in an area locally called the "Mountains of Water", as many rivers flow through there on their way to the Gulf of Mexico. It lacked mineral wealth, large areas of arable land, and easy access to markets. This dates back to cave paintings such as those found in Sima de las Cotorras near Tuxtla Gutiérrez and the caverns of Rancho Nuevo where human remains and offerings were also found. [123] Puerto Chiapas has 60,000 m2 (650,000 sq ft) of area with a capacity to receive 1,800 containers as well as refrigerated containers. [46] Although the Zapatista movement couched its demands and cast its role in response to contemporary issues, especially in its opposition to neoliberalism, it operates in the tradition of a long line of peasant and indigenous uprisings that have occurred in the state since the colonial era. This would lead to a practice called enganche (hook), where recruiters would lure workers with advanced pay and other incentives such as alcohol and then trap them with debts for travel and other items to be worked off. [16][47] Economic development in general raised the output of the state, especially in agriculture, but it had the effect of deforesting many areas, especially the Lacandon. [138][139] Seafood is a strong component in many dishes along the coast. It integrated older schools such as the Escuela de Derecho (Law School), which originated in 1679; the Escuela de Ingeniería Civil (School of Civil Engineering), founded in 1966; and the Escuela de Comercio y Administración, which was located in Tuxtla Gutiérrez. They also are responsible for some cloud-covered rainforest areas in the Sierra Madre. Cierre del peso mexicano", "En 2018 sí habrá elecciones en nuevos municipios de Chiapas: SGG", "History of Mexico – The State of Chiapas", "Unusual battle lines form around jungle", "Chiapas:Sus characterísticas Demográficas", "Uso y manejo de hongos silvestres en dos comunidades de la Selva Lacandona, Chiapas, México", "A cup of Chiapas culture: in addition to its colorful history and an abundance of natural resources, this region of Mexico also produces a wide variety of eco-friendly coffee", Website of the National Institute of Statistics, Geography, and Data Processing, "Address data base of Reformed churches and institutions", "Costumbres, fiestas y tradiciones (Chiapas)", "Día Internacional de la Lengua Materna, datos Chiapas", "Biodiesel, Finally a Reality in Public Transportation in Mexico", http://www.biodieselchiapas.mx/normatividad.html, "El arte popular en Chiapas, maravillosas manos artesanas", "Infraestructura Social y de Comunicaciones", "El café orgánico de Chiapas crece a contracorriente y sin incentivo", "The Cuisine of Chiapas: Dining in Mexico's Last Frontier", "Chiapas, Mexico Offers Ancient, Modern Religion Mix", "Indígenas musulmanes abren plática sobre el Islam en San Cristóbal", Lara Klahr, Marco. [116] Many pieces created from this clay are ornamental as well as traditional pieces for everyday use such as comals, dishes, storage containers and flowerpots. [46] Most of the members of these organization were from Protestant and Evangelical sects as well as "Word of God" Catholics affiliated with the political movements of the Diocese of Chiapas. The descendants of Mokaya are the Mixe-Zoque. [139] Turula is dried shrimp with tomatoes. Mira el archivo gratuito Estudio-taxonomico-floristico-de-las-Commelinaceae-de-Tabasco-Mex enviado al curso de Biologia Categoría: Resumen - 18 - 114412924 In one church in San Cristobal, Mayan rites including the sacrifice of animals is permitted inside the church to ask for good health or to "ward off the evil eye. The first was a merchant and diplomat and the second was a teacher, diplomat, theatre director and the director of the Instituto Nacional Indigenista. [76] The mountains partially block rain clouds from the Pacific, a process known as Orographic lift, which creates a particularly rich coastal region called the Soconusco. Of this one million, one third do not speak Spanish. [151] Yaxchilan is known for the large quantity of excellent sculpture at the site, such as the monolithic carved stelae and the narrative stone reliefs carved on lintels spanning the temple doorways. This Spanish city had much Arabic influence in its architecture, and this was incorporated into the colonial architecture of Chiapas, especially in structures dating from the 16th to 18th centuries. Higher levels of education include "professional medio" (vocational training), general high school and technology-focused high school. Call Center SENIOR HUBSPOT DEVELOPER (REMOTE) (Ver Puesto) Grupo Multivex Costa Rica; 06/11/2022 ; San José, Costa Rica. There are also 780 other establishments catering primarily to tourism, such as services and restaurants. Since the Accords, they have shifted focus in gaining autonomy for the communities they control. [16], The Universidad Pontificia y Literaria de Chiapas was founded in 1826, with Mexico's second teacher's college founded in the state in 1828. [16] There is evidence that the Aztecs appeared in the center of the state around Chiapa de Corza in the 15th century, but were unable to displace the native Chiapa tribe. Much of this is sent to other states accounting for over six percent of all of Mexico's energy output. This was followed by a number of other farms as well. [59] Zapatista sympathizers have included mostly Protestants and Word of God Catholics, opposing those "traditionalist" Catholics who practiced a syncretic form of Catholicism and indigenous beliefs. Many of these sites are in Mazatan, Chiapas area. [101], Over the history of Chiapas, there have been 3 main indigenous groups: the Mixes-Zoques, the Mayas and the Chiapa. It was begun when an organization to establish a state level institution was formed in 1965, with the university itself opening its doors ten years later in 1975. Two other regions were also established, the Soconusco and Tuxtla, all under the regional colonial government of Guatemala. Eventually, this production of coffee would become the state's most important crop. One important ingredient is chipilin, a fragrant and strongly flavored herb and hoja santa, the large anise-scented leaves used in much of southern Mexican cuisine. [139] Pepita con tasajo is a common dish at festivals especially in Chiapa de Corzo. Art Deco structures can be found in San Cristóbal and Tapachula in public buildings as well as a number of rural coffee plantations from the Porfirio Díaz era. The need to generate outside income has led to many indigenous women producing crafts communally, which has not only had economic benefits but also involved them in the political process as well. [99], Both Protestants and Word of God Catholics tend to oppose traditional cacique leadership and often worked to prohibit the sale of alcohol. Scribd es el sitio social de lectura y editoriales más grande del mundo. The main beaches on the coastline include Puerto Arista, Boca del Cielo, Playa Linda, Playa Aventuras, Playa Azul and Santa Brigida. El clima es cálido . Evangelization focused on grouping indigenous peoples into communities centered on a church. Lowe, G. W., “Chiapas de Corzo”, in Evans, Susan, ed., Whitmeyer, Joseph M. and Hopcroft, Rosemary L. "Community, Capitalism, and Rebellion in Chiapas. Within the depression there are a number of distinct valleys. The cult was taken over by one pilgrim, Pedro Díaz Cuzcat, who also claimed to be able to communicate with the stones, and had knowledge of Catholic ritual, becoming a kind of priest. [117], The Mochós or Motozintlecos are concentrated in the municipality of Motozintla on the Guatemalan border. Mexico produces about 4 million sacks of green coffee each year, fifth in the world behind Brazil, Colombia, Indonesia and Vietnam. [118], The Zoques are found in 3,000 square kilometers the center and west of the state scattered among hundreds of communities. El 5 de septiembre San Marcos proclama la independencia de España y Guatemala y su incorporación a México. [61][69] Much of this has been based on religion, pitting those of the traditional Catholic/indigenous beliefs who support the traditional power structure against Protestants, Evangelicals and Word of God Catholics (directly allied with the Diocese) who tend to oppose it. [91][159] The state as its Museo Regional de Antropologia e Historia located in Tuxtla Gutiérrez focusing on the pre Hispanic peoples of the state with a room dedicated to its history from the colonial period. Most producers are small with plots of land under five ha (12 acres). [29] For most of the early and mid 19th century, Conservatives held most of the power and were concentrated in the larger cities of San Cristóbal de las Casas, Chiapa (de Corzo), Tuxtla and Comitán. These factors encouraged the rebellion to go national. Chiapan cuisine tends to rely more on slightly sweet seasonings in their main dishes such as cinnamon, plantains, prunes and pineapple are often found in meat and poultry dishes. 245.1.0.a: Reconocimiento arqueológico en los valles cercanos a Las Margaritas, Chiapas. There are two main dialects; highland (or Oxchuc) and lowland (or Bachajonteco). [99], There are a number of people in the state with African features. [118] Tojolabal is related to Kanjobal, but also to Tzeltal and Tzotzil. Middle school is divided into technical, telesecundaria (distance education) and classes for working adults. [15] In the pre Classic period from 1800 BCE to 300 CE, agricultural villages appeared all over the state although hunter gather groups would persist for long after the era. Some growers have created cooperatives of their own to cut out the middleman. It is centered on the conservation of the red macaw, which is in danger of extinction. [16], In the mid-20th century, the state experienced a significant rise in population, which outstripped local resources, especially land in the highland areas. [16], There was political stability from the 1940s to the early 1970s; however, regionalism regained with people thinking of themselves as from their local city or municipality over the state. [32], Although the Liberals had mostly triumphed in the state and the rest of the country by the 1860s, Conservatives still held considerable power in Chiapas. Many of the items produced are still for day-to-day use, often dyed in bright colors with intricate embroidery. The best-known pre-Hispanic artwork is the Maya murals of Bonampak, which are the only Mesoamerican murals to have been preserved for over 1500 years. The terrain is flat and prone to flooding during the rainy season as it was built by sediments deposited by rivers and streams heading to the Gulf. [112][120], In the last decades of the 20th century, Chiapas received a large number of indigenous refugees, especially from Guatemala, many of whom remain in the state. Today, the canyon is a popular destination for ecotourism. [140] In the 1970s, caciques began to expel dissidents from their communities for challenging their power, initially with the use of violence. Since pre-Hispanic times, native peoples have believed amber to have healing and protective qualities. [97][102] Out of Chiapas's 111 municipios, 99 have majority indigenous populations. One reason for this push in this area was that Mexico was still working to strengthen its claim on the area against Guatemala's claims on the region. The state consists of 118 municipalities organized into nine political regions called Center, Altos, Fronteriza, Frailesca, Norte, Selva, Sierra, Soconusco and Istmo-Costa. It once stretched over a large part of eastern Chiapas but all that remains is along the northern edge of the Guatemalan border. It has deep salty soils due to its proximity to the sea. The crop was introduced in 1846 by Jeronimo Manchinelli who brought 1,500 seedlings from Guatemala on his farm La Chacara. [121], The state's abundant rivers and streams have been dammed to provide about fifty-five percent of the country's hydroelectric energy. It covers forty-two hectares centered on the Bélgica Lake. [76][89] The Sumidero Canyon was once the site of a battle between the Spaniards and Chiapanecan Indians. [20] The state's cattle production, along with timber from the Lacandon Jungle and energy output gives it a certain amount of economic clouts compared to other states in the region. It was founded in 1538 by Pope Paul III to evangelize the area with its most famous bishop of that time Bartolomé de las Casas. It is best known as a breeding area for parrots, thousands of which leave the area at once at dawn and return at dusk. The river below, which has cut the canyon over the course of twelve million years, is called the Grijalva. [54] To make matters worse, the Guatemalan army conducted raids into camps on Mexican territories with significant casualties, terrifying the refugees and local populations. [32], The Zapatista movement has had some successes. It is an extensive semi flat area bordered by the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, the Central Highlands and the Northern Mountains. The Zapatistas support these actions as part of indigenous rights, but that has put them in conflict with international environmental groups and with the indigenous inhabitants of the rainforest area, the Lacandons. This included the Sureste railroad connecting northern municipalities such as Pichucalco, Salto de Agua, Palenque, Catazajá and La Libertad. Most of these mountains are volcanic in origin although the nucleus is metamorphic rock. The color of its waters varies from indigo to emerald green and in ancient times, there were settlements on its islands and its caves on the shoreline. [61] A study as early as the 1970s showed that 77 percent of heads of household migrated outside of the Chamula municipality as local land did not produce sufficiently to support families. Portada; Política; Guerrero; Educación; Acapulco; México; Economía; Mundo; Cultura; Espectáculos [16][20][21] However, the main two groups, the Tzotzils and Tzeltals of the central highlands were subdued enough to establish the first Spanish city, today called San Cristóbal de las Casas, in 1528. This referendum ended in favor of incorporation with Mexico (allegedly through manipulation of the elite in the highlands), but the Soconusco region maintained a neutral status until 1842, when Oaxacans under General Antonio López de Santa Anna occupied the area, and declared it reincorporated into Mexico. [22] The Dominican evangelizers became early advocates of the indigenous' people's plight, with Bartolomé de las Casas winning a battle with the passing of a law in 1542 for their protection. [41] He also changed state policies to favor foreign investment, favored large land mass consolidation for the production of cash crops such as henequen, rubber, guayule, cochineal and coffee. Most of its socioeconomic indicators are the lowest in the country including income, education, health and housing. Conozca cuáles son los diferentes Tipos de Empresa según el sector de actividad, tamaño, propiedad del capital, ámbito de actividad, destino de los beneficios y forma jurídica. [162] The port serves the state of Chiapas and northern Guatemala. Coffee production intensified during the regime of Porfirio Díaz and the Europeans who came to own many of the large farms in the area. Solicita precios sin compromiso a los proveedores de Tubos de polietileno corrugado, sanitario y pluvial, ellos podrán responderte sin intermediarios. They inhabit about a million hectares of rainforest but from the 16th century to the present, migrants have taken over the area, most of which are indigenous from other areas of Chiapas. Tourism has become important in some areas of the state, especially in San Cristóbal de las Casas and Palenque. [153] The site is aligned with relation to the Usumacinta River, at times causing unconventional orientation of the major structures, such as the two ballcourts. All of the hydroelectric plants are owned and operated by the Federal Electricity Commission (Comisión Federal de Electricidad, CFE). One third of these producers are indigenous women and other peasant farmers who grow the coffee under the shade of native trees without the use of agro chemicals. His work celebrates everyday people in common settings. [103] Language maintenance has been strongest in areas related to where the Zapatista uprising took place such as the municipalities of Altamirano, Chamula, Chanal, Larráinzar, Las Margaritas, Ocosingo, Palenque, Sabanilla, San Cristóbal de Las Casas and Simojovel. La titularidad de los derechos patrimoniales de esta obra pertenece a Corzo Gamboa, Felix Arturo. About half of the state's population is under age 20, with an average age of 19. [21], Forestry is mostly based on conifers and common tropical species producing 186,858 m3 per year at a value of 54,511,000 pesos. [86], The capital of Sak Tz’i’ (an Ancient Maya kingdom) now named Lacanja Tzeltal, was revealed by researchers led by associate anthropology professor Charles Golden and bioarchaeologist Andrew Scherer in the Chiapas in the backyard of a Mexican farmer in 2020. These have added ethnicities such as the Kekchi, Chuj, Ixil, Kanjobal, K'iche' and Cakchikel to the population. 653.#.#.a: Migración; educación; trabajo precario; vulnerabilidad; chiapas; guatemala; migración; educación; trabajo precario; vulnerabilidad; chiapas; guatemala. Tensions have been strong, at times, especially in rural areas such as San Juan Chamula. According to anthropologists, these people are an "urban" ethnicity as they are mostly found in the neighborhoods of the municipal seat. By 1892, there were 22 coffee farms in the region, among them Nueva Alemania, Hamburgo, Chiripa, Irlanda, Argovia, San Francisco, and Linda Vista in the Soconusco region. The primary sector, agriculture, produces 15.2% of the state's GDP. One of these people's ancient cities is now the archeological site of Chiapa de Corzo, in which was found the oldest calendar known on a piece of ceramic with a date of 36 BCE. [16], Recent excavations in the Soconusco region of the state indicate that the oldest civilization to appear in what is now modern Chiapas is that of the Mokaya, which were cultivating corn and living in houses as early as 1500 BCE, making them one of the oldest in Mesoamerica. Le centre politique de ce peuple d'origine et de langue Otomangue, était Nandalumi appelé Chiapan, du nahuatl Chia-apan (rivière du chia) [7]. The oldest is pozol, originally the name for a fermented corn dough. [107][108], Although most indigenous language speakers are bilingual, especially in the younger generations, many of these languages have shown resilience. [34] Agustina Gómez Checheb was a girl tending her father's sheep when three stones fell from the sky. border around the same time. [76] Laguna Miramar is a lake in the Montes Azules reserve and the largest in the Lacandon Jungle at 40 km in diameter. Environmental groups state that the settlements pose grave risks to what remains of the Lacandon, while the Zapatistas accuse them of being fronts for the government, which wants to open the rainforest up to multinational corporations. Regions would specialize in certain crops and animals depending on local conditions and for many of these regions, communication and travel were difficult. [131] Other attractions along this route include Comitán de Domínguez and Chiapa de Corzo, along with small indigenous communities such as San Juan Chamula. There are two major lines: one in the north of the state that links the center and southeast of the country, and the Costa Panamericana route, which runs from Oaxaca to the Guatemalan border. [123], Chiapas's main port is just outside the city of Tapachula called the Puerto Chiapas. [16] In July 1824, the Soconusco District of southwestern Chiapas split off from Chiapas, announcing that it would join the Central American Federation. The jungle is in the Usumacinta River basin east of the Chiapas Highlands. [16], During the pre Classic era, it is known that most of Chiapas was not Olmec, but had close relations with them, especially the Olmecs of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Most of the rock is limestone allowing for a number of formations such as caves and sinkholes. [142] President Vicente Fox voiced concerns about the influence of the fundamentalism and possible connections to the Zapatistas and the Basque terrorist organization Euskadi Ta Askatasuna (ETA), but it appeared that converts had no interest in political extremism. [117], The Ch’ols of Chiapas migrated to the northwest of the state starting about 2,000 years ago, when they were concentrated in Guatemala and Honduras. [76], Chiapas has about thirty percent of Mexico's fresh water resources. [16] Rabasa also introduced the telegraph, limited public schooling, sanitation and road construction, including a route from San Cristóbal to Tuxtla then Oaxaca, which signaled the beginning of favoritism of development in the central valley over the highlands. [16] The Spanish also established missions, mostly under the Dominicans, with the Diocese of Chiapas established in 1538 by Pope Paul III. [50][61] The National Presbyterian Church in Mexico is particularly strong in Chiapas, the state can be described as one of the strongholds of the denomination. Those Ch’ols who remained in the south are distinguished by the name Chortís. This includes an average layover time of around 1h. Chiapas, estado (state) of southern Mexico. [56] The official government response was to militarize the areas around the camps, which limited international access and migration into Mexico from Central America was restricted. ¿Cómo fue que Guatemala perdió Chiapas? In 1992, the 61,874 ha (152,890-acre) Lacantun Reserve, which includes the Classic Maya archaeological sites of Yaxchilan and Bonampak, was added to the biosphere reserve. [59] The revolt also pressed the government to institute anti-poverty programs such as "Progresa" (later called "Oportunidades") and the "Puebla-Panama Plan" – aiming to increase trade between southern Mexico and Central America. According to the Museum of Amber in San Cristóbal, almost 300 kg of amber is extracted per month from the state. After the Spanish subdued the area, the building of Spanish style cities began, especially in the highland areas. [20] Natural vegetation varies from lowland to highland tropical forest, pine and oak forests in the highest altitudes and plains area with some grassland. [16][48] This was the beginning of a process that would lead to the emergence of the Zapatista movement in the 1990s. [46] One reason for the Church's efforts to reach out to the indigenous population was that starting in the 1970s, a shift began from traditional Catholic affiliation to Protestant, Evangelical and other Christian sects. [97] In 2005, there were 924,967 households, 81% headed by men and the rest by women. ¿Cómo viajo desde Chiapas a Ciudad de Guatemala sin un coche? [98] Construction of these units varies from modern construction of block and concrete to those constructed of wood and laminate. Other mines are found in Huitiupán, Totolapa, El Bosque, Pueblo Nuevo Solistahuacán, Pantelhó and San Andrés Duraznal. [16][26][27] Guatemala would not recognize Mexico's annexation of the Soconusco region until 1895, even though the border between Chiapas and the country was agreed upon in 1882. 44,238 views Oct 5, 2019 1.3K Dislike Share Save Profe Dan GT 1.81K subscribers ¿Qué de cierto hay, de que el presidente guatemalteco Justo Rufino Barrios,. Principal exports through the port include banana and banana trees, corn, fertilizer and tuna. It extends over 1,381 ha (3,410 acres) of tropical rainforest. [123] Newspapers of Chiapas include: Chiapas Hoy, Cuarto Poder , El Heraldo de Chiapas, El Orbe, La Voz del Sureste, and Noticias de Chiapas. En el pasado la corrección del problema se ha centrado sobre el ph, por medio de la incorporación de 1 a 2 t ha-1 de cal en la capa superior del suelo, sin tomar en cuenta la fuente de cal, su Poder Relativo de . Con información de Carlos Carpizo Terrones. This is reflected in its indigenous vs. Prices vary depending on quality and color. This bishop not only graciously evangelized the people in their own language, he worked to introduce many of the crafts still practiced today. Take the bus from Tuxtla Gutiérrez to San Cristóbal de las Casas. There are 22 other airfields in twelve other municipalities. The Zapatista story remained in headlines for a number[quantify] of years. [32][87] The highest peak in Chiapas is the Tacaná Volcano at 4,800 m (15,700 ft) above sea level. [132], The average number of years of schooling is 6.7, which is the beginning of middle school, compared to the Mexico average of 8.6. Pijijiapan and Izapa are on the Pacific coast and were the most important pre Hispanic cities for about 1,000 years, as the most important commercial centers between the Mexican Plateau and Central America. Tzotzil communities are governed by a katinab who is selected for life by the leaders of each neighborhood. The peasants tried to take over the land anyway, but when violence broke out, they were forcibly removed. These were one of the first native peoples of Chiapas, with archeological ruins tied to them dating back as far as 3500 BCE. [21], 12 of Mexico's officially recognized native peoples living in the state have conserved their language, customs, history, dress and traditions to a significant degree. In total, the state has 110,000 ha (270,000 acres) of surface waters, 260 km (160 mi) of coastline, control of 96,000 km2 (37,000 sq mi) of ocean, 75,230 ha (185,900 acres) of estuaries and ten lake systems. "[60], This small band, called the Zapatista Army of National Liberation (Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional, EZLN), came to the world's attention when on January 1, 1994 (the day the NAFTA treaty went into effect) EZLN forces occupied and took over the towns of San Cristobal de las Casas, Las Margaritas, Altamirano, Ocosingo and three others. Its topography is mountainous with many narrow valleys and karst formations called uvalas or poljés, depending on the size. [72] Its economy is important to Mexico as a whole as well, producing coffee, corn, cacao, tobacco, sugar, fruit, vegetables and honey for export. [95] As of 2010, 78% lives in urban communities with 22% in rural communities. In 1823, Guatemala became part of the United Provinces of Central America, which united to form a federal republic that would last from 1823 to 1839. Preschool and primary schools are divided into modalities called general, indigenous, private and community educations sponsored by CONAFE. [21] In September of the same year, a referendum was held on whether the intendencia would join Central America or Mexico, with many of the elite endorsing union with Mexico. Another town noted for their sculptures is Tecpatán. Harvests are celebrated on the Feast of Saint Rose on 30 August. [88] In accordance with an 1882 treaty, the dividing line between Mexico and Guatemala goes right over the summit of this volcano. The lake is generally green but its tones constantly change through the day depending on how the sun strikes it. [154], The city of Bonampak features some of the finest remaining Maya murals. [51], The arrival of thousands of refugees from Central America stressed Mexico's relationship with Guatemala, at one point coming close to war as well as a politically destabilized Chiapas. [139], While Chiapas is known for good coffee, there are a number of other local beverages. Four of Chiapas's indigenous languages, Tzeltal, Tzotzil, Tojolabal and Chol, are high-vitality languages, meaning that a high percentage of these ethnicities speak the language and that there is a high rate of monolingualism in it. The oldest sites are in the coastal Soconusco region. Each Tzeltal community constitutes a distinct social and cultural unit with its own well-defined lands, wearing apparel, kinship system, politico-religious organization, economic resources, crafts, and other cultural features. [26], This led to the arrest of Checheb and Cuzcat in December 1868. Other highways included El Escopetazo to Pichucalco, a highway between San Cristóbal and Palenque with branches to Cuxtepeques and La Frailesca. The Mayans built cities on the Yucatán Peninsula and west into Guatemala. EZLN y el Movimiento Mundial Murabitun,”. Items include various types of handcrafted clothing, dishes, jars, furniture, roof tiles, toys, musical instruments, tools and more. Agriculture includes both seasonal and perennial plants. Sin embargo, hay una fecha cercana y que no da mucho motivo para la celebración en nuestro país y en México pasa inadvertida. They are concentrated in Chamula, Zinacantán, Chenalhó, and Simojovel. Cities were centered on large political and ceremonial structures elaborately decorated with murals and inscriptions. [76], The Sierra Madre de Chiapas runs parallel to the Pacific coastline of the state, northwest to southeast as a continuation of the Sierra Madre del Sur. Patria 3083 Col. El Sauz Acueducto, 44980 Jal. In addition to coffee, the region also produces most of Chiapas's soybeans, bananas and cacao. Traditional Lacandon shelters are huts made with fonds and wood with an earthen floor, but this has mostly given way to modern structures. [155], Multiple domestic constructions used by the population for religious purposes. Starting in the 1970s, traditional leaders in San Juan Chamula began expelling dissidents from their homes and land, amounting to about 20,000 indigenous forced to leave over a thirty-year period. [20], Chiapas is one of the states that produces a wide variety of handcrafts and folk art in Mexico. Livestock such as cattle, horses and sheep were introduced as well. [138], Like in the rest of Mexico, Christianity was introduced to the native populations of Chiapas by the Spanish conquistadors. [138][139] Taxcalate is a drink made from a powder of toasted corn, achiote, cinnamon and sugar prepared with milk or water. Despite this, the armed conflict was brief, mostly because the Zapatistas, unlike many other guerilla movements, did not try to gain traditional political power. The Tzotzils of San Juan de Chamula are known for their sculptures as well as for their sturdy furniture. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México. At this level, 89% of students are in public schools. They built the Al-Kausar Mosque in San Cristobal de las Casas.[146][147]. School absenteeism and dropout rates are highest among indigenous girls. 15h 23m. In 1960, Samuel Ruiz became the bishop of the Diocese of Chiapas, centered in San Cristóbal. [6] Así, tras ejercicio extrañamente democrático para su momento histórico, el 14 de septiembre de 1824… These mountains also receive large amounts of rainfall with moisture from the Gulf of Mexico giving it a mostly hot and humid climate with rains year round. Men wear short pants, embroidered at the bottom. [121] Chiapas ranks second among the Mexican states in the production of cacao, the product used to make chocolate, and is responsible for about 60 percent of Mexico's total coffee output. Chiapas has one of the greatest diversities in wildlife in the Americas. Although Mexico is not a signatory to the UN Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, international pressure forced the government to grant official protection to at least some of the refugees. [138] A Comitán speciality is hearts of palm salad in vinaigrette and Palenque is known for many versions of fried plaintains, including filled with black beans or cheese. [128], The major center for ceramics in the state is the city of Amatenango del Valle, with its barro blanco (white clay) pottery. The Sumidero Canyon National Park was decreed in 1980 with an extension of 21,789 ha (53,840 acres). This dough has its origins in the pre-Hispanic period. 16.5% have no schooling at all, 59.6% have only primary school/secondary school, 13.7% finish high school or technical school and 9.8% go to university. These are used for domestic flights with the airports in Palenque and Tapachula providing international service into Guatemala. La mejor manera de ir desde Chiapas a Ciudad de Guatemala sin un coche es en autobús vía Tuxtla Gutiérrez que dura 14h 4m y cuesta $950 - $1400. It contains ancient cave paintings depicting warriors, animals and more. In the 1970s, cuts in the price of corn forced many large landowners to convert their fields into pasture for cattle, displacing many hired laborers, cattle required less work. Chiapas itself is merely one portion of the large region that was inhabited by the Mayan Indians. There are also a number of notable steles. Se lo describe como un enano o un hombrecito de muy corta estatura (aproximadamente medio metro de alto) que lleva un enorme sombrero con el que esconde la mirada y sus sucias intenciones. [158] Sima de las Cotorras is a sinkhole 140 meters deep with a diameter of 160 meters in the municipality of Ocozocoautla. Ocosingo has its own self-named variety, which is shipped to restaurants and gourmet shops in various parts of the country. [139], Cheese making is important, especially in the municipalities of Ocosingo, Rayon and Pijijiapan. [21][27] The State of Chiapas was officially declared in 1824, with its first constitution in 1826. In 1980, several ejido (communal land organizations) joined to form the Union of Ejidal Unions and United Peasants of Chiapas, generally called the Union of Unions, or UU. Collier, George A, and Elizabeth Lowery Quaratiello. [21][86] These sites contain a large number of structures, most of which date back thousands of years, especially to the sixth century. It was one of two settlements initially called Villa Real de Chiapa de los Españoles and the other called Chiapa de los Indios. Two main communities in the area are called Nahá and Metzabok. En un documento difundido por Protección Civil de Chiapas se refiere que cinco migrantes perdieron la vida en los hospitales tras el accidente y hay 105 personas lesionadas, la mayoría de ellas con diagnóstico de fracturas, policontundidos y con pronóstico reservado. [79] The Lacandon comprises a biosphere reserve (Montes Azules); four natural protected areas (Bonampak, Yaxchilan, Chan Kin, and Lacantum); and the communal reserve (La Cojolita), which functions as a biological corridor with the area of Petén in Guatemala. [166][167], Agriculture, livestock, forestry and fishing. The marimba was introduced by African slaves brought to Chiapas by the Spanish. From fewer than one million inhabitants in 1940, the state had about two million in 1980, and over 4 million in 2005. It covers 331,200 ha (818,000 acres) in the municipalities of Maravilla Tenejapa, Ocosingo and Las Margaritas. They also offer a number of ecotourism activities such as mountain climbing, rafting, rappelling and mountain biking. Apart from a few works by Franciscan friars, knowledge of Maya civilisation largely disappeared after the Spanish Conquest. [58], In the 1980s, the politization of the indigenous and rural populations of the state that began in the 1960s and 1970s continued. Added to this was there were still serf like conditions for many workers and insufficient educational infrastructure. Rail lines extend over 547.8 km. One uprising against high tribute payments occurred in the Tzeltal communities in the Los Alto region in 1712. The volcano is located within the Tacaná municipality of the San Marcos Department in Guatemala; and within the Cacahoatán and Unión Juárez Municipalities of Chiapas state in Mexico.. Its last known eruption was registered in 1986 — a small phreatic eruption in May — but it is still considered as dangerous to more than 250,000 people residing in the area. [21] 22 municipalities have indigenous populations over 90%, and 36 municipalities have native populations exceeding 50%. As of the 2005 Census, there were 957,255 people who spoke an indigenous language out of a total population of about 3.5 million. [32] These mountains, along the Sierra Madre of Chiapas become the Cuchumatanes where they extend over the border into Guatemala. [127], Chiapas's most important handcraft is textiles, most of which is cloth woven on a backstrap loom. It has significantly underdeveloped infrastructure compared to the rest of the country, and its significant indigenous population with isolationist tendencies keep the state distinct culturally. Tension among the groups reached its peak in the 1990s with a large number of people injured during open clashes. 264.#.1.c: 2013-02-15. [16][17], From the colonial period Chiapas was relatively isolated from the colonial authorities in Mexico City and regional authorities in Guatemala. [112] One major exception to the separatist, indigenous identity has been the case of the Chiapa people, from whom the state's name comes, who have mostly been assimilated and intermarried into the mestizo population. The Maya Route runs along the border with Guatemala in the Lacandon Jungle and includes the sites of Palenque, Bonampak, Yaxchilan along with the natural attractions of Agua Azul Waterfalls, Misol-Há Waterfall, and the Catazajá Lake. [86] It is centered on what was a commercial logging grant by the Porfirio Díaz government, which the government later nationalized. The land reforms brought colonists from other areas of the country as well as foreigners from England, the United States and France. ¿Cómo Guatemala perdió a Chiapas? Al año siguiente la mayoría de ellas se unió al Primer Imperio Mexicano. There are 105 universities and similar institutions with 58 public and 47 private serving over 60,500 students. [64] There was some ambiguity about the relationship between Ruiz and Marcos and it was a constant feature of news coverage, with many in official circles using such to discredit Ruiz. In addition to Agua Azul, the area has other attractions—such as the Shumuljá River, which contains rapids and waterfalls, the Misol Há Waterfall with a thirty-meter drop, the Bolón Ajau Waterfall with a fourteen-meter drop, the Gallito Copetón rapids, the Blacquiazules Waterfalls, and a section of calm water called the Agua Clara. It developed between 350 and 810 CE. San Cristóbal de las Casas, which had a very limited budget, to the extent that it had to ally with San Juan Chamula challenged Tuxtla Gutierrez which, with only a small ragtag army overwhelmingly defeated the army helped by chamulas from San Cristóbal. One reason for that is that a local chili pepper, called the simojovel, is far too hot to use except very sparingly. “¿El Islam en Chiapas? The predominant wild vegetation is perennial high rainforest. [50] Over half of speakers are monolingual in the Chol language. [45] Although this colony ultimately failed, there remains a small Japanese community in Acacoyagua, Chiapas. Empleos.Net pertenece a Empleos.Net de Panama S.A. y se rige por las leyes de la República de Panam . 2002. [61] Relations between the indigenous ethnic groups is complicated. Chiapas Ch’ols are closely related to the Chontal in Tabasco as well. The remaining three regions, Soconusco, Centro and Costa, have populations that are considered to be dominantly mestizo. The group, characterized as anti-capitalistic, entered an ideological pact[dubious – discuss] with the socialist Zapatistas group. [26][46][50], The adoption of liberal economic reforms by the Mexican federal government clashed with the leftist political ideals of these groups, notably as the reforms were believed to have begun to have negative economic effects on poor farmers, especially small-scale indigenous coffee-growers. Indigenous forms derive from this background and continue into the colonial period with the use of indigenous color schemes in churches and modern structures such as the municipal palace in Tapachula. [71][76], Agua Azul Waterfall Protection Area is in the Northern Mountains in the municipality of Tumbalá. Dermatología Cosmética, Médica y Quirúrgica Órgano oficial de la Sociedad Mexicana de Cirugía Dermatológica y Oncológica, AC Volumen 18 / Número 2 / abril-junio 2020 [email protected] Publicación auspiciada por el Colegio Ibero Latinoamericano de Dermatología Registrada en el directorio de revistas de Latindex www.latindex.org Indexada en Periódica (Índice de Revistas . This production equals 6,313.6 m3 (222,960 cu ft) of natural gas and 17,565,000 barrels of oil per year. These foreign immigrants would introduce coffee production to the areas, as well as modern machinery and professional administration of coffee plantations. [50], The 1980s saw a large wave of refugees coming into the state from Central America as a number of these countries, especially Guatemala, were in the midst of violent political turmoil. [26] In 1821, a number of cities in Chiapas, starting in Comitán, declared the state's separation from the Spanish empire. Izapa became an important pre-Mayan site as well. After three years, Marín was able to subjugate a number of the local peoples, but met with fierce resistance from the Tzotzils in the highlands. The new Ladino landowners occupied their acquired lands as well as others, such as shopkeepers, opened up businesses in the center of Indian communities. La Secretaría de Comunicaciones y Transportes (SCT) recomendó a las embarcaciones menores tomar precauciones por efecto de viento y oleaje en las costas de Guerrero, Chiapas, Michoacán, y Jalisco, debido a la presencia de un núcleo convectivo que provocará lluvias moderadas a fuertes en la entidad. They also make a ceremonial tunic from bark, decorated with astronomy symbols. This congress was the first of its kind with the goal of uniting the indigenous peoples politically. The making lacquer to use in the decoration of wooden and other items goes back to the colonial period. La nacion Provincias Unidas del Centro de America no duro mucho tiempo porque las diferentes provincias eran liderados por caudillos locales que realmente querian la independencia y a partir de 1938 se constituyeron las cinco republicas independientes. It contains wildlife such as manatees and iguanas and it is surrounded by rainforest. The route passes through Puerto Chiapas, a port with modern infrastructure for shipping exports and receiving international cruises. The encomienda system that had perpetrated much of the abuse of the indigenous peoples declined by the end of the 16th century, and was replaced by haciendas. The agricultural sector of the economy now favors ejidos and other commonly-owned land. [20], The Montes Azules Biosphere Reserve was decreed in 1978. Development of this culture was agricultural villages during the pre-Classic period with city building during the Classic as social stratification became more complex. Men no longer wear traditional garb daily as it is considered too expensive to make. The total biodiversity of the state is estimated at over 50,000 species of plants and animals. There is horseback riding as well.[91]. The Grutas de Rancho Nuevo Ecotourism Center is centered on a set of caves in which appear capricious forms of stalagmite and stalactites. [129], Wood crafts in the state center on furniture, brightly painted sculptures and toys. The Reform War (1858–1861) fought between Liberals, who favored federalism and sought economic development, decreased power of the Roman Catholic Church, and Mexican army, and Conservatives, who favored centralized autocratic government, retention of elite privileges, did not lead to any military battles in the state. [21][50] Men dress in short pants tied with a red cotton belt and a shirt that hangs down to their knees. The population of the Lacandon was only one thousand people in 1950, but by the mid-1990s this had increased to 200 thousand. [81] The climate is tropical, with a number of rivers and evergreen forests in the mountains. [61] Today, the situation has quieted but the tension remains, especially in very isolated communities. Fishing on this lake is an ancient tradition and the lake has an annual bass fishing tournament. Quickest way to get there Cheapest option Distance between. [87], Chiapas is located in the tropical belt of the planet, but the climate is moderated in many areas by altitude. There are thirty-seven local television stations and sixty-six repeaters. México. [20] The history of the Palenque site begins in 431 with its height under Pakal I (615–683), Chan-Bahlum II (684–702) and Kan-Xul who reigned between 702 and 721. In the hot lowlands, there are armadillos, monkeys, pelicans, wild boar, jaguars, crocodiles, iguanas and many others. [37] Chiapas governor Dominguéz came to San Cristóbal with about three hundred heavily armed men, who then attacked the Indian force armed only with sticks and machetes. [20], The most important instrument in the state is the marimba. Noted 20th-century artists include Lázaro Gómez, Ramiro Jiménez Chacón, Héctor Ventura Cruz, Máximo Prado Pozo, and Gabriel Gallegos Ramos. Population continued to increase faster than the economy could absorb. José María Morelos y Pavón did enter the city of Tonalá but incurred no resistance. [138] Tzispolá is a beef broth with chunks of meat, chickpeas, cabbage and various types of chili peppers. Major airports include Llano San Juan in Ocozocoautla, Francisco Sarabia National Airport (which was replaced by Ángel Albino Corzo International Airport) in Tuxtla Gutiérrez and Corazón de María Airport (which closed in 2010) in San Cristóbal de las Casas. [124], Although until the 1960s, many indigenous communities were considered by scholars to be autonomous and economically isolated, this was never the case. It is then served very cold with much ice. [21] This action followed previous protests in the state in opposition to neoliberal economic policies. The only other insurgent activity was the publication of a newspaper called El Pararrayos by Matías de Córdova in San Cristóbal de las Casas.[25]. Much of the latter has been prominent since the Zapatista uprising in 1994. A marina serves yachts in transit. In the early 20th century and into the Mexican Revolution, the production of coffee was particularly important but labor-intensive. [130] The most important city on this route is San Cristóbal de las Casas, located in the Los Altos region in the Jovel Valley. (Tesis de Doctorado). [21][22], The state has about 13.5% of all of Mexico's indigenous population,[97] and it has been ranked among the ten "most indianized" states, with only Campeche, Oaxaca, Quintana Roo and Yucatán having been ranked above it between 1930 and the present. The first military incursion was headed by Luis Marín, who arrived in 1523. Laguna Verde is a lake in the Coapilla municipality. Liberal reforms took away this arrangement and many of these lands fell into the hands of large landholders who when made the local Indian population work for three to five days a week just for the right to continue to cultivate the lands. Its rock is mostly limestone. [32][79] The ecosystem covers an area of approximately 1.9×106 ha (4.7×106 acres) extending from Chiapas into northern Guatemala and southern Yucatán Peninsula and into Belize. However, the soil of this area cannot support annual crop farming for more than three or four harvests. [53] By 1984, there were 92 camps with 46,000 refugees in Chiapas, concentrated in three areas, mostly near the Guatemalan border. However, Tzotzil communities can be found in almost every municipality of the state. Lacanjá Chansayab is located in the interior of the Lacandon Jungle and a major Lacandon people community. In the 1960s, several hundred migrated to the Lacandon rain forest near the confluence of the Santo Domingo and Jataté Rivers. They live near the ruins of Bonampak and Yaxchilan and local lore states that the gods resided here when they lived on Earth. There was a small experiment with democracy in the form of "open city councils" but it was short-lived because voting was heavily rigged. Soon, the Tzoltzils and Ch'ols joined the Tzeltales in rebellion, but within a year the government was able to extinguish the rebellion. El territorio de Guatemala se dividía también en varias regiones, entre ellas Chiapas, Los Altos, La Verapaz, Petén, Belice, Soconusco, Mita, y otros. Nights at the jungles are filled with sounds, songs and laughs from the aluxes, some creatures that escaped from heaven. Although the Liberals had earlier supported the cult, Liberal landowners had also lost control of much of their Indian labor and Liberal politicians were having a harder time collecting taxes from indigenous communities. [121], Tourism brings large numbers of visitors to the state each year. [100] The concept of "mestizo" or mixed indigenous European heritage became important to Mexico's identity by the time of Independence, but Chiapas has kept its indigenous identity to the present day. There is a short dry season from March to May. The secondary sector, mostly energy production, but also commerce, services and tourism, accounts for 21.8%. [21][22], Tzotzil speakers number just slightly less than theTzeltals at 226,000, although those of the ethnicity are probably higher. [76][121], Industry is limited to small and micro enterprises and include auto parts, bottling, fruit packing, coffee and chocolate processing, production of lime, bricks and other construction materials, sugar mills, furniture making, textiles, printing and the production of handcrafts. The earliest population of Chiapas was in the coastal Soconusco region, where the Chantuto peoples appeared, going back to 5500 BC. [86][130] In addition to the sites on the Mayan Route, there are others within the state away from the border such as Toniná, near the city of Ocosingo. Protestants and Word of God Catholics (allied directly with the bishopric in San Cristóbal) tended to oppose traditional power structures. [121] These crops take up 95% of the cultivated land in the state and 90% of the agricultural production. [132], Like the rest of Mesoamerica, the basic diet has been based on corn and Chiapas cooking retains strong indigenous influence. As Liberals gained the upper hand nationally in the mid-19th century, one Liberal politician Ángel Albino Corzo gained control of the state. In 1848, a group of Tzeltals plotted to kill the new mestizos in their midst, but this plan was discovered, and was punished by the removal of large number of the community's male members. Aqua-LAC 3(2): 127-140. [21][117], The Lacandons are one of the smallest native indigenous groups of the state with a population estimated between 600 and 1,000. It also has minerals such as obsidian, amber, jade and several types of clay and animals for the production of leather, dyes from various insects used to create the colors associated with the region. The ancient Mayan culture flourished across a large portion of present-day Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, western Honduras and the five Mexican states of Yucatán, Quintana Roo, Tabasco, Campeche and Chiapas. [19] It is not known what ended the civilization but theories range from over population size, natural disasters, disease, and loss of natural resources through over exploitation or climate change. The historic center of the city is filled with tiled roofs, patios with flowers, balconies, Baroque facades along with Neoclassical and Moorish designs. Revista Académica para el Estudio de las. [136], The two best-known poets from the state are Jaime Sabines and Rosario Castellanos, both from prominent Chiapan families. [85], The best preserved portion of the Lacandon is within the Montes Azules Biosphere Reserve.
Elementos Del Contrato Administrativo, Penca De Tuna Como Se Prepara, Importadora De Productos Ferreteros, Ferula Para Muñeca Inkafarma, Acta De Conformidad De Entrega De Materiales, Taller Socioemocional Para Adolescentes Ppt,
Elementos Del Contrato Administrativo, Penca De Tuna Como Se Prepara, Importadora De Productos Ferreteros, Ferula Para Muñeca Inkafarma, Acta De Conformidad De Entrega De Materiales, Taller Socioemocional Para Adolescentes Ppt,